There is a horrendous lack of material about Russian folk belief in the Middle Ages. The information provided below has been extrapolated from Linda Ivanits' _Russian Folk Belief_, which surveys the data collected in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Some material has been added in order to bring things in line with "paradigm". Russian folk belief often only thinly overlays Christian belief over ancient pagan ones. This peculiar blend will be repeatedly seen in the material below. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- SAINTS Nicholas: the favorite saint of peasants. Patron of livestock (especially horses), protector of grainbearing fields. Considered a potent power against evil spirits, and invoked in healing charms. Patron of merchants, fisherman, and seafarers. He is depicted as a kind and merciful helper. George: holy warrior and martyr. Favored more than Nicholas amongst the Kievan principalities, and among the upper class. Patron of livestock and shepherds, and of wild animals. Cassian: more properly, not a saint, but a demonic personage. His feast day occurs only during leap year, which peasants consider unlucky. Said to possess the evil eye. He is known as, "Cassian the Unmerciful". ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- THE DEVIL The "unclean force" (nechistaia sila) is used to refer to all potentially harmful spirits in general, as well as the devil himself. Like the forest spirit (leshii) and water sprite (rusalka), he leads travelers astray, abducts children, and is connected with the impious dead. Like the water spirit (vodianoi), he often resides in deep ponds. However, unlike the nature spirits, which occasionally aid peasants, the devil is completely hostile towards mankind. A large number of euphemisms are used for him, and some carry specific Church connotations, such as "devil" (d'iavol) and "Prince of Darkness" (kniaz't'my). The most frequently used designation, though, is "chert"; this term is connected with the Russian word for line/limt (cherta), and is related to the magic line (chur), usually a circle, that he is supposed to be unable to cross. While the images of the house spirit (domovoi) and nature spirits are survivals of Russian pre-Christianity, the devil carries the clear stamp of church notions. In Russian tradition, he is depicted as black, and usually lame, a trait ascribed to his fall from heaven. He has the power of metamorphosis, favoring black cats and dogs. It is believed that during thunderstorms, Elijah the Prophet sends down thunderbolts to destroy these animals. Peasants believed that demons live in a social order much like men do, and that their celebrations take place at crossroads. The rooster was considered a powerful enemy of the unclean force; other means of protection included church bells, holy candles, holy water, incense, the use of a yoke or halter, and various plants (thistle, juniper). The belt or sash that peasants wore around their waists was also considered a talisman against the unclean force, and like the cross worn around the neck from childhood, it was removed only when bathing. The peasant imagined that the devil was constantly watching for holes or gaps into which to crawl. For this reason, he made the sign of the cross whenever he yawned, opened doors, drew water, etc.: in short, whenever he encountered an aperture, however small or large, into which the devil might crawl. Divination rituals took place throughout the winter period, but those occurring on New Year's Eve were regarded as especially reliable, providing certain conditions were observed: crosses and belts had to be removed and a blessing could not be asked. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- SORCERY Russian peasants had a strong belief in the existence of sorcerors and witches, which persisted well into the Soviet era. The terms "koldun", "ved'miak", or "vedun" are used for men; "ved'ma" or "koldun'ia" are used to designate women. The term "znaiushchie liudi" ("people with knowledge") was frequently used to designate those believed to possess supernatural powers. Special terms existed for fortunetellers and diviners (vorozheia, and otgadchik/otgadchitsa, respectively). The term "heretic" (eretik/eretitsa) was used to designate dead sorcerors who continued to inflict harm on the living. The term "volkhv" refers to the priest-magician of Russian paganism. Finally, there were the "magic healers" (znakhar/znakharka), who were believed to use their magical powers for the benefit of their villages. The volkhhvy (plural of volkhv), despite the influence of the Christian church, continued to practice on the fringes of society. The general populace continued to consult them for healing and divination. The enormous energy the Church expended in its struggle against paganism simply confirmed popular belief in the supernatural powers of the volkhvy. There is a gap in the histories from about 1100 until the time of Tsarist Russia. During the time of Tsarist Russia, the practice of sorcery was even doen in the noble houses, including the household of the Tsar himself; belief in it was extremely widespread. Punishments of this in Moscow of the sixteenth century were quite harsh; Kievan punishments, by contrast, were milder, usually consisting of a fine, an oath, or a church penance, though burning at the stake was not unknown. Russian peasants distinguished between "born" and "taught" sorcerors. The former were sometimes thought to be the offspring of the third of three illegitimate generations; the latter were believed to inherit their powers from another practitioner, or to receive them directly from the devil. "Taught" or "willing" sorcerors were thought to be more powerful than "born" ones.